Acrylamide - Revision history

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‎Author

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2017-04-07T13:52:09Z

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RRM: /* Aminopropionamides */

2017-01-26T19:05:53Z

‎Aminopropionamides

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‎Acrylamide in food

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‎Acrylamide formation

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‎Acrylamide formation

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‎Acrylamide formation

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‎Acrylamide formation

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‎Acrylamide formation

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 ==Author==
 Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
 Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)

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 ==Author==
-[[Image:SocialMedia.jpg|thumb|left| ]]
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 Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:05, 26 January 2017
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	* '''3)''' by enzymatic decarboxylation of asparagine; 3-APA is formed during storage of intact potatoes (20° or 35°C) or after crushing of the cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15264910].		* '''3)''' by enzymatic decarboxylation of asparagine; 3-APA is formed during storage of intact potatoes (20° or 35°C) or after crushing of the cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15264910].
	3-APA is present in Gouda cheese; increasing to 1300 mcg/kg after thermal processing.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828874] Wheat flour containing high levels of asparagine will yield high levels of both acrylamide and 3-APA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Wheat flour may contain 40 to 76 mg of 3-APA / kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Pyridoxamine (part of the vitamin B6 family) induces 3-APA formation at the expense of acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19143489]		3-APA is present in Gouda cheese; increasing to 1300 mcg/kg after thermal processing.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16828874] Wheat flour containing high levels of asparagine will yield high levels of both acrylamide and 3-APA.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Wheat flour may contain 40 to 76 mg of 3-APA / kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17455956] Pyridoxamine (part of the vitamin B6 family) induces 3-APA formation at the expense of acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19143489]
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		+	==Author==
		+	[[Image:SocialMedia.jpg\|thumb\|left\| ]]
		+	Author of this article is Thijs Klompmaker, born in 1966
		+
		+	* Author's [http://www.topfitafter50.com/ website, as personal trainer] (specialized in isolation exercises and dietary solutions)
		+
		+	* Author's [https://www.instagram.com/topfitafter50/ Instagram account]
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		+	* Author's [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCLZULfm7l2dZFyDdhrROJKg YouTube Channel]
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		+	* Author's [https://twitter.com/topfitafter50/ Twitter account]

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 Higher levels of reducing sugars results in higher levels of acrylamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22953952], with free asparagine being the limiting factor[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438317], but often levels of free asparagine correlate with free glucose and fructose levels.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624440] Except for lysine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16209557], cysteine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16018588] and glycine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15826086], the presence of other additional amino acids may increase acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19739658], or not.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438308](due to competitive [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCA] formation)
-Acrylamide can also be formed at physiological conditions (37°C, pH 7.4) when asparagine is incubated in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), depending on incubation time and H2O2 concentration (oxidative stress, counteracted by glutathione), which allowes for endogenous acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19772296], which is actually the case in mice (oxidative stress-induced)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624427] Naringenin (in grapefruits, oranges[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23132664] and tomato skin[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20349923]), strongly inhibits acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19639978] and P450 enzymes[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22935222][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21953762] that activate/detoxify [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCAs] and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
+Acrylamide can also be formed at physiological conditions (37°C, pH 7.4) when asparagine is incubated in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), depending on incubation time and H2O2 concentration (oxidative stress, counteracted by glutathione), which allows for endogenous acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19772296], which is actually the case in mice (oxidative stress-induced)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18624427] Naringenin (in grapefruits, oranges[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23132664] and tomato skin[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20349923]), strongly inhibits acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19639978] and P450 enzymes[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22935222][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21953762] that activate/detoxify [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) HCAs] and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
 ==Acrylamide activation==
-Genotoxicity of acrylamide depends on its activation into glycidamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15667831] Most of the acrylamide ingested with food is absorbed in humans. Glutathione prevents most of the acrylamide being converted into the reactive metabolite glycidamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16492914] Acrylamide is efficiently activated to glycidamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16239164] by P450 enzymes. P450 2E1 inhibitors, such as diallyl sulfide in garlic, inhibit acrylamide to glycidamide conversion.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16337756] Common human viral infections may influence this metabolism.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15863249] Activation of acrylamide into glycidamide turnes out to be significantly more effective in non-smokers than in the higher exposed smokers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15729833] Transport of acrylamide in the intestine is mediated primarily by passive processes. Depletion of cellular glutathione levels may be one potential mechanism for acrylamide (geno)toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17267090] To what extend acrylamide may cause DNA damage is not so much related to the activity of P450 enzymes, but more so to the extend of depletion of glutathione, which increases both genotoxicity and cytotoxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668109]
+Genotoxicity of acrylamide depends on its activation into glycidamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15667831] Most of the acrylamide ingested with food is absorbed in humans. Glutathione prevents most of the acrylamide being converted into the reactive metabolite glycidamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16492914] Acrylamide is efficiently activated to glycidamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16239164] by P450 enzymes. P450 2E1 inhibitors, such as diallyl sulfide in garlic, inhibit acrylamide to glycidamide conversion.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16337756] Common human viral infections may influence this metabolism.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15863249] Activation of acrylamide into glycidamide turns out to be significantly more effective in non-smokers than in the higher exposed smokers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15729833] Transport of acrylamide in the intestine is mediated primarily by passive processes. Depletion of cellular glutathione levels may be one potential mechanism for acrylamide (geno)toxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17267090] To what extend acrylamide may cause DNA damage is not so much related to the activity of P450 enzymes, but more so to the extend of depletion of glutathione, which increases both genotoxicity and cytotoxicity.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668109]
 ==N-methylacrylamide==
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 * '''Cookies'''' acrylamide concentrations correspond with baking temperature and surface color. Steam-assisted baking results in lower levels.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22950636] low-temperature long-time pre-treatment may reduce acrylamide yield with up to 42%.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19785002] Cookies baked at 150°C  for 25  minutes yielded 75 mcg acrylamide /kg, compared to 236 mcg/kg in cookies baked at 240°C  for 9 minutes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22784192] Cookies baked in an oven at 205°C for 11 min yielded 107 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22490203] A Chinese study found on average 388 mcg acrylamide /kg in biscuits.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080811] The median level found in Austrian cookies was 99 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932]
 * '''Crispbread / crackers''' may contain 845 mcg/kg[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20730646], 942 mcg/kg [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080811], or 1480 mcg acrylamide / kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17230586] The median in an Austrian study was 69 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932]
-* '''Bread'''; By increasing baking time and temperature, acrylamide content increased from 10 to 30 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16028985] In the crust, acrylamide levels usually are over 100 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438316], and levels may increase 190-fold with increased temperature and baking time; the darker the crust, the more acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15053550] In general, wheat bread (up to 5 mcg/kg) and rye bread (7 to 23 mcg/kg) contain relatively little acrylamide when untoasted, but toasted wheat (11 to 161 mcg/kg) and rye bread slices (27 to 205 mcg/kg) contain much more[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18608496]; in hard-toasted bread, all asparagine has reacted.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18608496] More acrylamide was formed in "dark" toasted bread slices (43 to 611 mcg/kg), than "light" (8 to 218 mcg/kg) or "medium" (11 to 214 mcg/kg) toasted slices.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438318] If nitrogen fertilization is applied to the wheat, the bread products may contain 55.6 mcg/kg instead of 10.6 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17090149] In an Egyptian study bread contributed to 17% of the mean daily dietary acrylamide intake.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410716]
+* '''Bread'''; By increasing baking time and temperature, acrylamide content increased from 10 to 30 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16028985] In the crust, acrylamide levels usually are over 100 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438316], and levels may increase 190-fold with increased temperature and baking time; the darker the crust, the more acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15053550] In general, wheat bread (up to 5 mcg/kg) and rye bread (7 to 23 mcg/kg) contain relatively little acrylamide when untoasted, but toasted wheat (11 to 161 mcg/kg) and rye bread slices (27 to 205 mcg/kg) contain much more[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18608496]; in hard-toasted bread, all asparagine had reacted.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18608496] More acrylamide was formed in "dark" toasted bread slices (43 to 611 mcg/kg), than "light" (8 to 218 mcg/kg) or "medium" (11 to 214 mcg/kg) toasted slices.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438318] If nitrogen fertilization is applied to the wheat, the bread products may contain 55.6 mcg/kg instead of 10.6 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17090149] In an Egyptian study bread contributed to 17% of the mean daily dietary acrylamide intake.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410716]
 * '''Cereals''' may contain from 50 to 347 mcg/kg[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20582779], or 62 to 803 mcg/kg, 292 mcg/kg on average[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16865750], up to 1080 mcg acrylamide /kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20730646].
 * '''Corn products''' were found to contain between 30 and 410 mcg acrylamide /kg [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600544]. The median level found in popcorn was 97 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932] Microwaved popcorn contains less acrylamide than traditionally produced popcorn.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17555107]
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 ==Health effects==
-* '''Neurotoxicity'''; Acrylamide induces hepatic ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3956794] and affects behaviour by influencing hepatic mechanisms or central dopaminergic function.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7201569] Decreased dopamine levels may be due to acrylamide induced (radical) peroxynitrite formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19442880] The nerve terminal is a primary site of acrylamide action, which impairs neurotransmi9tter release and promotes degeneration by inhibiting inhibiting membrane-fusion processes (by adducting nucleophilic sulfhydryl groups on proteins critically involved in membrane fusion).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15183015] In rats, 5000 mcg acrylamide/kg induces cognitive and motivational alterations.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720246] Neurotoxicity due to acrylamide is a documented effect in human epidemiological studies[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14705871], but not likely to occur in the general population except very high consumers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17905504]
+* '''Neurotoxicity'''; Acrylamide induces hepatic ornithine decarboxylase (ODC)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3956794] and affects behaviour by influencing hepatic mechanisms or central dopaminergic function.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7201569] Decreased dopamine levels may be due to acrylamide induced (radical) peroxynitrite formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19442880] The nerve terminal is a primary site of acrylamide action, which impairs neurotransmitter release and promotes degeneration by inhibiting membrane-fusion processes (by adducting nucleophilic sulfhydryl groups on proteins critically involved in membrane fusion).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15183015] In rats, 5000 mcg acrylamide/kg induces cognitive and motivational alterations.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720246] Neurotoxicity due to acrylamide is a documented effect in human epidemiological studies[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14705871], but not likely to occur in the general population except very high consumers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17905504]
 * '''Health in general'''; Acrylamide and its metabolite glycidamide bind with proteins to form protein adducts in metabolic processes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21167989] Acrylamide increases expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cycloogenase-2 (Cox-2) and NOS activity in breast epithelial cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20713430] These are known to be early molecular changes in disease formation. In humans, chronic ingestion of acrylamide (and [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Trans-fatty_acids trans-fatty acids]) induces a proinflammatory state (increasing homocysteine and plasma C-reactive protein[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15058816]), a risk factor for atherosclerosis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19158207]
 * '''Pregnancy'''; The placenta gives negligible protection of the fetus to exposure from acrylamide[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21882862]. The concentration of acrylamide adducts in the blood of human neonates is approximately 50% of the adduct level found in the blood of the mother.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14740221] In humans, maternal dietary exposure to acrylamide is associated with reduced birth weight and head circumference.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23092936][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23204292] In pregnant mice, both acrylamide and fried potato chips increased the rate of abortion and neonatal mortality and decreased the total number, body weight, size, and crown-rump length of the offspring before and after birth. Fried potato chips induced higher rates of congenital malformations than acrylamide alone.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21329872] In rat pups, acrylamide administration induced neurotoxic symptoms.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22197712] The lactational transfer of acrylamide to rat offspring is limted though (<10%).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19305978] In human breast milk samples (except one) the acrylamide level was below 0.5 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811575]
-* '''Intestines'''; In mice, acrylamide altered the morphology and histology of the small intestinal wall, decreasing proliferation, myenteron and submucosal thicknesses, villus length, fractal dimension, crypt depth, crypt number, and the small intestinal absorptive surface. Conversely, apoptosis, hemoglobin adduct levels, intensity of epithelium staining, enterocyte number, villus epithelial thickness, and crypt width and parameters associated with nerve ganglia were increased. These effects were inhibted by potato fiber.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414587]
+* '''Intestines'''; In mice, acrylamide altered the morphology and histology of the small intestinal wall, decreasing proliferation, myenteron and submucosal thicknesses, villus length, fractal dimension, crypt depth, crypt number, and the small intestinal absorptive surface. Conversely, apoptosis, hemoglobin adduct levels, intensity of epithelium staining, enterocyte number, villus epithelial thickness, and crypt width and parameters associated with nerve ganglia were increased. These effects were inhibited by potato fiber.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414587]
 * '''Reproductive toxicity'''; In rats, acrylamide exposure of 2500 μg/kg bodyweight caused significant changes in serum hormones, histopathology, testicular gene expression and cell proliferation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22459607], but no thyroid, hypothalamus or pituitary changes (hormones, mRNA levels)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18430446] In weaning male rats, acrylamide has a toxicological effect on the reproductive system.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21415092] In mice, increased fat intake potentiates acrylamide-induced oxidative stress in the epididymis and epididymal sperm and a subsequent effect on spermatogenesis.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20158387] Acrylamide may also affect the Leydig cells (androgen release).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18390183] In humans, reproductive toxicity due to acrylamide is not likely to occur in the general population except very high consumers.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763]
 * '''Cancer'''; Acrylamide is clearly carcinogenic in studies in animals, in which it causes increased tumour incidence at a variety of sites.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17033134] Acrylamide targets endocrine sensitive tissues, increasing DNA damage in thyroid, testicular mesothelium and adrenal medulla.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438288] Acrylamide (and/or its metabolites) are genotoxic in human lymphocytes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15501435] In mice, 0.14 mmol glycidamide / kg bodyweight induces DNA adduct formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19123476] and DNA adducts in lymphoma cells in a linear dose-dependent manner. Glycidamide (acrylamide metabolite) is mutagenic starting at a 2mM dose.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029077] In rats, at a dose of 1 μg/kg bodyweight, adducts (DNA adducts, primarily at N7 of guanine) were found in kidney and lung, but not in liver. At 10 μg/kg bw, adducts were found in all three organs, at levels close to those found at 1 μg acrylamide/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22211389] Carcinogenicity and mutagenicity are possible hazardous health effects for the general population[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19230763], but only with relatively high intakes.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17905504][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17822822] After lifelong daily exposure to 1 mcg acrylamide per kg body weight, 6 out of 10,000 individuals may develop cancer due to acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12805639] Human epidemiological studies show a lack of relationship between acrylamide intake and various types of cancer.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22495255][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22136129]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668103] Glycidamide is only moderately genotoxic.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15668108] Given the consistent relationship between dietary carcinogenic [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Heterocyclic_Amines_(HCA) heterocyclic amines (HCAs)] and various types of cancer, and that dietary acrylamide mainly comes from processed plant (starchy) foods, and that dietary carcinogenic HCAs mainly come from processed animal foods, a high plant food intake (vs high animal food intake) is indeed unlikely to increase exposure to dietary carcinogens (acrylamide intake will be at the expense of HCA intake).

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 Not antioxidants in general[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14611163], but pyridoxamine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19143489] (part of the vitamin B6 family) and some antioxidants (vitamin C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20667655], vitamin E)[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23057639] decrease the level of acrylamide produced during food processing. Adding antioxidants to foods may increase the formation of acrylamide upon long-term heating if free sugar concentration is low and asparagine concentration is relatively high.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22143430] Phytic acid inhibits acrylamide formation.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438310]
-* '''Potatoes''' may contain varying levels of acrylamide, varying per season[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22928369], as storing below 10°C increases breakdown of starch to sucrose, ultimately cleaved by acid invertase to produce glucose and fructose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22734927]. The mean level of acrylamide content in all frozen potato products before preparation was found to be 322 μg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21853292] In an Iranian study, levels of acrylamide in potato products varied between 244 and 1688 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600544] Baking at 170°C more than doubled the acrylamide amount that formed upon frying at the same temperature, whereas at 180°C and 190°C, the acrylamide levels of chips prepared by baking were lower than their fried counterparts.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20492162] Elevated phenol levels in potatoes inhibit acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20629114], and potato fiber protect the small intestines against the negative impact of acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414587]
+* '''Potatoes''' may contain varying levels of reducing sugars, varying per season[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22928369], as storing below 10°C increases breakdown of starch to sucrose, ultimately cleaved by acid invertase to produce glucose and fructose[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22734927]. The mean level of acrylamide content in all (pre-fried) frozen potato products before preparation was found to be 322 μg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21853292] In an Iranian study, levels of acrylamide in potato products varied between 244 and 1688 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20600544] Baking at 170°C more than doubled the acrylamide amount that formed upon frying at the same temperature, whereas at 180°C and 190°C, the acrylamide levels of chips prepared by baking were lower than their fried counterparts.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20492162] Elevated phenol levels in potatoes inhibit acrylamide formation[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20629114], and potato fiber protect the small intestines against the negative impact of acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414587]
 * '''Potato crisps / chips'''; In a Polish study, potato crisps contained 770 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21365857] A French study found on average 954 mcg acrylamide/kg in potato chips/crisps.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22240413] A Chinese study found on average 1548 mcg/kg in potato chips.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22080811] In an Egyptian study potato chips contained 1500 mcg/kg and fried potatoes 540 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18410716] In an Austrian study potato crisps contained up to 1500 mcg/kg (median: 499 mcg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15560932] A Swiss study found 7000 mcg/kg in one particular brand of potato chips.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20730646] In a Canadian study the acrylamide concentration in potato chips varied from 106 to 4630 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20582779] In a Spanish study acrylamide in potato crisps varied from 81 to 2622 mcg/kg (average 740 mcg/kg).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680901] and in Polish studies from 376 to 2348 mcg/kg[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18807914] and 352 to 3647 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17711133] The highest result was 12000 mcg/kg in overcooked oil-fried chips.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12623671]
 * '''French fries''' fried at 150°C to 190°C for up to 10 min had acrylamide levels of 55 to 2130 mcg/kg, with the highest levels in the most processed (highest frying times/temperatures) and the most highly browned fries.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438318] A Chinese study found 604 mcg/kg in fried potato.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23202837] A Polish study found the lowest levels in French fries collected from bars and restaurants; 401 mcg/kg.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21365857] From another Chines study: "French fries were found to contain 278-4518 mcg/kg. It means that the content of acrylamide in French fries is 10,000 times higher than the drinking water guideline of World Health Organization for acrylamide.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16124585]

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 ==Acrylamide formation==
-Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. Acrylamide is particularly formed in heated plant foods (>120°C, peaking at 150°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16546881], between 160-180°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113184], or at 210°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14726273]) and 25-30 minutes cooking time[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438303]). Acrylamide as a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction-product] is yielded by the reaction of "'''A''' + '''B'''.
+Amides are derivates of ammonia or (carboxylated) amines. Acrylamide is particularly formed in heated plant foods (>120°C, peaking at 150°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16546881], between 160-180°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15113184], or at 210°C[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14726273]) and 25-30 minutes cooking time[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438303]). Acrylamide as a [http://www.waiwiki.org/index.php/Maillard_reaction Maillard reaction-product] is yielded by the reaction of '''A''' + '''B'''.
 * '''A)''' amino acids, particularly asparagine. Through the acrylic acid pathway, acrylamide may also be formed from glutamic acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18029078], carnosine[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16317786], aspartic acid[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14565766] or beta-alanine.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15315400], or indirectly even cysteine or serine (> pyruvic acid > acrylic acid).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16438299]