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Revision as of 18:57, 16 July 2014
Together with oranges and clementines, mangoes are the most all-round fruits, regarding nutrients. Mangoes are cultivated in (sub)tropical regions all over the world.
Low-fibre, sweet mango species
If you use a juice extractor like the Hurom / Versapers (masticating slow juicer), the stringy fibres from species like Tommy Atkins or Haden will clog your juicer (more so than pineapples). The chamber will fill up with long fibres that simply never get discarded, so that you need to empty and clean it after every few mangoes. With mangoes like Kent (#11 on the list), you may endlessly (>100 mangoes) continue juicing without having to empty or clean the chamber in between, because the short fibres are immediately discarded as pulp (as with apples, pears, clementines).
Anwar Ratol
- #1 (aka Anwer Rathol, Anwar Retaul or Anwar Rataul)
- Small size (av. 180 g), medium thick skin
- Matures from green to pale bright yellow
- Very sweet (TSS 26-28%)
- Fibreless flesh, medium juicy
- Originally from Rataul, in Bagpat district, in the province of Uttar Pradesh, India.
- Harvested from June to July (India and Punjab in Pakistan)
- Keeps well in storage
Alphonso
- #2 (aka Alphanso, Bombay)
- Small, roundish / oblong (av. 200 g.)
- Smooth, (from green to) pale greenish-yellow to deep orange peel (deepening with ripening)
- Smooth, firm flesh. Intense reddish-orange colour
- Sweet, somewhat sour (17% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 39; TSS 21-23%) and flavoured
- Virtually without fibre (1%), medium juicy
- Originally from Western India
- Main production in Maharashtra and Gujarat
- Highest quality in Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri (Natwarlal plantation), Raigad and Thane districts
- Harvested from early April to early July (India) and July (some districts in Sindh, Pakistan)
- Fairly disease resistant
- Tolerates high humidity
- Good keeping quality (up to 4 weeks at 11° C)
Dashehari
- #3 (aka Dasheri, Doshehri, Aman Dusehri or Dussehri)
- Small, oblong (av. 175 g)
- Matures from light green to light yellow, thin skin
- Sweet (TSS 21-22%), lemon yellow flesh
- Fibreless, medium juicy
- Very small stone
- Heavy bearer
- Originally from Dasheri, Uttar Pradesh, India.
- Harvested from early June to July, mainly Malihabad, Uttar Pradesh (and Punjab)
Bagan Pali
- #4 (aka Begun Palli, Began Phali, Banganapalli or Baganpali)
- Large (av. 550 g.), oval
- Sweet (TSS 18-20%)
- Fibreless, little juicy, yellow flesh
- Matures from dark green to yellow light green or yellow-orange
- Thin, smooth, shiny skin
- Originally from Sindh, Pakistan and/or Banganapalle in Andhra Pradesh, India.
- Harvested from July to August (Pakistan)
Sindhri
- #5
- Medium to large (av. 300 g., av. 400 g in Pakistan)
- Elongated with pointy curve
- Sweet (17% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 36; TSS 15-17%), flavoured
- Little fibre (3% - 5%), little juicy
- From green to deep matt lemon yellow thin peel (somewhat wrinkly) when ripe
- Deep yellow-orange flesh; soft and melting
- Originally from Mir Pur Khaas in Sindh
- Harvested from late May to July (Pakistan)
Chaunsa
- #6 (aka Sammar Bahisht Chausa)
- Large (av. 350 g.), oblong
- Sweet (18% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 58; TSS 18-20%)
- Soft, succulent flesh
- Medium fibre, large stone, medium juicy
- Thin, pale, matt yellow peel (wrinkly and slightly deeper when ripe)
- Heavy bearer
- Originally from Pakistan
- Harvested mainly in the Rahim Yar Khan and Multan (Sahiwal) districts of Punjab in Pakistan
- Harvested from June to early September (Pakistan)
Maya
- #7
- Medium, round (av. 300 g.)
- Sweet (17% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 42; TSS 16-17%) and flavoured
- Red blush peel (with yellow tinge when ripe)
- Smooth, deep/pale yellow flesh (soft when ripe)
- Medium fibre, very juicy
- Harvested from mid-June to early July (Gambia)
Gopalbogh
- #8 (aka Gopal Bhogue)
- Small size (average 190 g.)
- Yellow-green peel, with small seeds
- Virtually without fibre
- Very sweet (21% sugar)
- Good quality mainly grown in Rajshahi region, especially in Chapainawabganj district (Bangladesh).
- Harvest from mid May to mid June (Bangladesh)
Sweet Elena
- #9
- Large sized, ovoid (av. 350 g.)
- Thin, orange peel
- Yellow to orange flesh
- Little fibre
- Sweet (19% sugar)
- Originally (as a carabao variety) from Sta. Cruz, Zambales (Philippines)
- Harvest from March to April (Locloc, Palauig in northern Zambales, Philippines)
Ataulfo
- #10 (aka Adaulfo, Adolfo, Champagne, Manila or honey mango, related to Alphonso)
- Small, oblong shape (av. 225 g.)
- With ripening, peel turns from pale green to gold-yellow (yellow to orange and wrinkles when fully ripe)
- Deep yellow flesh (gold when ripe), little fibre and thin pit
- Smooth, sweet (15% sugar), and buttery / creamy flesh
- Spicy flavour
- Best temperature is 28°C, tolerates 1100 to 3000 mm annual rainfall
- Originally from Chiapas, Mexico
- Harvest from mid-October to late December (Ecuador); February to August (Ghana)
- May be stored in the fridge for 2 weeks
Kent
- #11
- Large, rounded oval (500 to 800 g.)
- Smooth, waxy thick peel (green with some yellow and red; yellow increases with ripening)
- Soft, melting, juicy flesh (from deep yellow to deep orange when fully ripe)
- Limited fibre (dry weight: 0.4 - 2%), small seed
- Sweet (13% sugar; 14ºBrix [9])
- Originally from Mexico / Florida
- Harvest from January to March and May to August (Ghana)
- Large tree (up to 20 m.)
- No storage keeping below 13°C
- Fairly disease resistant
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Mango Cultivation
Conditions
The best soil for mango trees has a pH between 5.5 and 7.5 (high pH may cause leaf tip burn). The temperature range for growing mangoes is 15 to 40°C. Mango does best within a temperature range of 24 to 27°C. The Indian race is in general intolerant of humidity (susceptible to anthracnose), the Philippine race tolerates excess moisture. The life span of each tree is approximately 100 years. Economic bearing life is 30 to 50 years. Mango trees need deep soil (up to 2 m) for their root systems. Grafted saplings yield a more superior quality of fruit. Fruits are borne by mango trees from 4 to 5 years after planting. Full bearing starts at 6 to 7 years. Grafted mango plants start bearing blossoms one to two years after planting, provided that there is no high humidity or intense rain during the flowering period (dryness induces flowering).
Rootstock Propagation
Trees grown from mango seeds (and naturally, sexually propagated) will be very different from the tree those mangoes came from (such 'wild mangoes' usually taste bad). That is why rootstocks (raised from seeds) are asexually propagated. Matured seedlings (about 60 cm tall) are grafted by inarching; a bud from a tree producing good quality mangoes is artificially attached to the rootstock. This will create a new tree with two parts: the lower (wild) part and the upper part, which is an exact copy of the tree you took this bud from. Any bud growing from the lower part needs to be pruned off immediately. The upper part needs to grow and produce branches, and eventually fruits. During the first month after planting, the young trees need to be irrigated every 3 days. During the next 2 months, they need to be irrigated once a week. After that they should not be watered for a couple of months. Each year they need a dry season of a few months. Young plants need 10 to 30 kg organic manure per plant. Don't use a chemical fertilizer on young plants. Once the tree is 2 years old, you may start using a controlled release fertilizer (with higher nitrogen), like 12-5-9 or 12-8-34 (= ratios N:P:K); 1 tbsp. in 1 L warm water / meter tree height. Or just manure.
Rootstock branches should always be pruned off. To prevent viral infections, only prune using a very sharp, sterilized knife (sterilize on the spot with a propane torch).
Production technology
Space mango trees about 12 meters apart. Adult mango trees need about 500-750 mm of water per year. In the wet season irrigated once per 8 to 10 days. In the dry season once per 15 to 20 days. Mango trees need dry and wet spells alternately (also kills various pathogens). Don't fertilize mature trees during fruit bearing, and not too much irrigation. If during the blooming season the soil contains much nutrients (fertilizer) and water, the tree will grow, but not flower and bear fruits. You may either:
- A: Apply 80 to 100 kg manure per year, after all fruits are picked. Or:
- B: Apply 3-4 kg SSP, 2-3 kg Potassium Sulphate and 2-3 kg Urea before flowering. Plus 2-3 kg Urea in 2 doses after fruit setting. Or:
- C: Use a controlled release fertilizer once a year, such as 4-4-8 (= ratios N:P:K), after all fruits are picked (1 tbsp. in 1 L warm water / meter tree height).
After fruit harvest, prune off diseased, dried, broken branches and those touching the ground. Every 3 to 4 years about 15 to 20% of old wood should be removed. Picking should be done when the fruit is fully developed and mature. Natural drop of the fruit is the main indication that the fruit is ready for picking. Expected yields vary from 40 to 100 kg per tree.
One cannot rear any animals (except for carnivores) on land with mango trees, as mango leaves are deadly poisonous.
Bugs
Aphids
Aphids (plant lice; Toxoptera odinae) are small (1-4 mm), living in clusters. They pierce plant tissue and suck the sap of the leaves, which may cause the leaves to bend, twist or roll up. Aphids also transmit plant viruses. Some species produce winged offspring, "alates", that may readily disperse. Dry (and warm) weather stimulates increases in aphid numbers. Some species of ants (eg Dolichoderus cuspidatus and Formica aerate) protect and 'farm' aphids, feeding on the honeydew released by the aphids' alimentary (gut) canals. Insects secreting honeydew may cause Sooty mould
Control: Plant flowering plants at the boarders to attract beneficial insects. Plant 'trap crops' (dill, nasturtiums, timothy grass) to monitor aphid numbers. Check the trap crops every 3 days. Infested trap crops need to be burned. Aphid's natural enemies include predatory ladybirds (eg Propylea quatuordecimpunctata), hooverfly larvae, parasitic wasps, aphid midge larvae, crab spiders (Thomisidae) and lacewings (Neuroptera). Exposing aphid populations to natural predators may be successful particularly when its hot, because once bitten they release an alarm pheromone and the others all jump off the plant. Jumping aphids may experience a heat shock (> 35°C) since the ground may be much warmer than the shady tree. This heat shock usually sterilizes the aphids (killing the bacteria on aphids that provide nutrients essential for aphid reproduction). [10]
Crab spiders (Thomisidae); Crab spiders are ambush hunters (they don't build webs) that not just eat aphids, but may also hunt ants that farm aphids. Some of these crab spiders, Xysticus sp, may however not just eat ants, but also predatory beetles (that eat aphids).
lacewings (Neuroptera); One may buy millions of lacewings (as captive-bred eggs) for biological pest control, as reared for that purpose in many countries. A female lacewing may plant over 100 eggs on plants infested with aphids. These eggs hang on a thin 1 cm long stalk, most often under a leaf. The larvae of most species of lacewings are specialised predators that eat aphids (and coccids such as mango scales, and caterpillars). These larvae sway their heads from left to right, and back, until they strike something they can eat. They have mouthparts that can pierce and suck the aphids. Many (adult) lacewing species also feed on nectar and pollen, but particularly Chrysopa (eg Mallada signata) are mainly predatory (one adult may eat 15 aphids per day). One may attract Chrysopidae by planting crops that attract them (mainly Asteraceae and Apiaceae), such as calliopsis (Coreopsis), cosmos (Cosmos), sunflowers (Helianthus), dandelion (Taraxacum), dill (Anethum) and angelica (Angelica).
Chemicals; If you have no other option and immediate action is required: Use Folido 50% EC at the rate of 0.45 L per 450 L water / acre. (also kills natural aphid enemies)
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Fruit Flies
In 2013, the export of mangoes from Ghana and 27 other African countries was banned from major international markets mainly due to fruit fly infestation. The European Union imposed a ban from May 1 2014, on import of mangoes from India, also due to fruit fly infestation.
The fruit flies (aka peacock flies; 4-7 mm long) that may form a very severe mango cultivation pest is not the Drosophila, but the colourful Tephritidae family (> 5000 species). These attack mango fruits throughout the season and lay their eggs right under the (affected) skin of mature green or ripe fruits. They have three generations and multiply very rapidly. Within one or two days the eggs hatch into white maggots. The maggots feed on the fruit, which starts to rot. After 4 to 17 days, the maggots make holes in the skin and leave the fruit to pupate.
The main fruit fly pests of mango in Africa are Ceratitis capitata (Medfly), C. fasciventris, C. rosa and C. cosyra (the most destructive). C. cosyra is however rapidly displaced by Bactrocera invadens (endemic to Sri Lanka)[11][12], being predominantly a low-land pest.[13] B. invadens populations quickly increase with the onset of the raining season[14] and also lay aggs in young fruits. Fruit fly populations peak in the late dry season.[15]
Control: Collect all the fallen and affected fruits and bury them deep (>50 cm) into the soil. Or you can use them to breed maggots in a sealed room for fish feed. Natural enemies of tephritids include Diapriidae (tiny wasps; <8mm), Braconidae (also parasitoid wasps) and Oecophylla longinoda (Latreille; a weaver ant).
C. cosyra, but particularly C. fasciventris and Medfly may be effectively controlled by using the host-marking pheromone.[16] B. invadens [17], the Mediterranean fruit fly (C. capitata) and the Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens) may be effectively controlled by the 'sterile insect technique' (releasing overwhelming numbers of sterile insects). The effects of sterile flies are greater than those for parasitoid wasps, but they are complementary.[18] Medfly eggs and instars (right under the peel) may be killed by immersing Ataulfo mangoes for 95 min in warm water at 47°C, also positively modifying pH (producing more palatable fruits), but can also produce a loss of firmness and weight (5%).[19] B. invadens is no more heat tolerant than Medfly.[20]
Bait traps; Pheromone traps (85% methyl-eugenol, 5% Naled (insecticide), 10% saturated sugar) can be used for trapping male flies (Jackson trap). A three-component attractant (ammonium acetate, putrescine, and trimethylamine lures) may be used to trap female population of Medfly. (No wind: 28 m. range).[21] Malathion-bait sprays and Phloxine B (a xanthene dye; D&C Red #28) are equally effective.[22] Of six commercial food-based attractants, Nulure captured the greatest proportion of females: 74% compared with 51-68%. But Mazoferm E802 (with or without Spinosad) and Torula yeast captured 2.4-2.6 times more females and 3.4-4.0 times more males than Nulure (also more effective than GF-120, Hymlure and Biolure).[23]
Fopius arisanus (Sonan); F. arisanus is a tiny but most effective[24] and the most dominant parasitoid wasp. As parasitism increases, fruit fly infestation decreases.[25] Of 3 commonly used bait sprays, which all suppress fruit fly populations, Spinosad and Phloxine B bait sprays are less harmful to these wasps than Malathion bait spray. [26]
Diachasmimorpha longicaudata; D. longicaudata (longtailed fruit fly wasp) is the most important parasitoid wasp used as part of integrated pest management programs against fruit flies such as B. invadens and Ceratitis species. They lay one or more (when hosts are scarse) eggs in fruit fly larva.[27] Introduction of D. longicaudata poses minimal competitive risk to F. arisanus.[28]
Oecophylla longinoda; O. longinoda is a predator weaver ant that may eat whatever insect or bug they may catch, including caterpillars, beatles, honey bees, driver ants (Dorylus nigricans Ill.) and larvae. O. longinoda is a natural enemy of fruit flies as it eats their larvae. This weaver ant is fiercely territorial and will keep other species of ants (like aphids-farming black ants) at bay. The ants continuously patrol the tree that they live in and may also catch egg-laying female fruit flies in the act, and eat them. B. invadens and C. spp numbers on Kent mangoes may be greatly reduced by Oecophylla longinoda.[29] Weaver ants, however, also feed on honeydew. They may farm a wide range of honeydew-producing Homoptera (bugs with sucking mouthparts, including scales, aphids and mealybugs), but are mostly associated with Coccids (Saissetia; no virus vector). Only when other Coccids are scarce or unavailable, O. longinoda may farm aphids and mealybugs (unarmoured scale insects that are virus vectors). Mainly in small trees and shrubs, the mechanical damage caused by Coccids is related to the size of the attendant ant colony. Dense populations of O. longinoda are supported by interplanting with clove.[30] For the protection of their harvested honeydew, these weaver ants weave a translucent silken tent around living leaves. They use the silk produced by their larvae. It is claimed that pheromones produced by the weaver ants repel egglaying fruit flies. A study in Senegal, however, found that pheromones produced by O. longinoda did hardly repel egglaying females of B. invadens.[31] On the other hand, trees colonized by O. longinoda (in Ghana) had only 6 to 10% fly infestation, compared to 3% fly infestation in trees treated with Cypermethrin plus Dimethoate. (1614 mg per tree)[32]
Chemicals; If you have no other option, GF-120 (Dow chemical) may greatly (81-89% after 7-10 weeks) reduce the number of B. invadens pupae per kg mango.[33] Or use Dioptries 80% at the rate of 1 L in 450 L water or Malathion 57% at the rate of 0.5 L to 450 L water / acre. Broad-spectrum insecticides are most damaging to fruit flies' natural enemies such as parasitoid wasps.[34]
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Inflorescence Midge
This midge (Erosomyia indica) lays eggs in new inflorescence (preventing flower and fruit set) and new leaves around it, and then the larvae will eat their way through. The maggots penetrate and feed on the tender parts of the plant, such as shoots, buds and flower buds. The flowers will dry and fall off. For pupation, the mature larvae will drop into the soil. The adult midge lives only one day and doesn't cause any damage. Maggots from eggs laid on new fruits will eat their way into the fruit, which will turn yellow and drop.[35] The inflorescence midge is an important pest in India in particular.
Infloresence midge is parasitized by Platygaster sp., Eupelmus sp. and Tetrastichus sp.[36], which all also parasitize the Mango Gall Midge. The inflorescence midge is also parasitized by Aprostocetus sp. and Mirufens longifunculata. [37]
Another mango midge, Procystiphora mangiferae is parasitized by Pirene sp. [38], which also parasitizes mango gall midges.
Chemicals: If you have no other option, Parathion, Dimethoate, Phosphamidon and Endosulfan much reduced infestations on mango shoots.[39] The most effective insecticide for control appeared to be phosphamidon (Dimecron), whether mixed with diazinon or not, as a foliar spray. [40]
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Leaf Webber
This brown moth (Orthaga euadrusalis) has been observed in India and Indonesia. Females mate only one time during their whole life.[41] The leaf webber lays eggs on young leaves and buds and creates a web around pods, leaves and flowers for its larvae to pupate in. It causes relatively very little damage, as the larvae merely eat from the surface of the leaves.
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Long-horn Beetles
- The (red-spotted) Stem Borer (Batocera rufomaculata), is a large long-horned beetle (up to 5 cm long body). It cuts incisions on the bark and lays its eggs (up to 200) inside the cuts or cracks of the (damaged) tree bark, trunk or cavities (eg exposed roots). The beetles feed on the bark of living trees and eat the green of young shoots. The grub of the stem borer pupates and feeds inside the stem of mango trees (and other fruit trees, including durian, figs, avocado, jackfruit and cashew nuts), creating a tunnel towards the surface (up to 2 cm in diameter), eventually becoming a beetle. Sap (from the tree) and frass (or coarse sawdust, from the larvae) may drip from the holes. Older larvae may also tunnel deeper in the trunk or branches. This causes drying of branches, and the tree may die. The incidence of infestation of trunk borer is highly influenced by maximum temperature. Infestation is highest when temperature and humidity are high.[42] For reproduction, it needs to lay its eggs in a stem that is at least 7 cm in diameter. The Stem Borer has been observed in the west coast of Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles, Turkey, Israel, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Nepal, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and the West Indies. Adults may live up to 4 months. Full grown larva may be 8 to 10 cm long, and may live up to a year, causing a lot of damage. Larval and prepupal + pupal stage lasts about 280 and 24-29 days.[43]
- The (yellow-spotted) Mango Longhorned Beetle (Batocera rubus) is also a wood borer and about equally large as the Stem Borer. Full grown larvae are 6 to 8 cm long. It attacks various fruit trees, including mango, breadfruit and figs, but also bonsay trees, rubber trees and freshly felled timber. Batocera rubus has been observed in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Phillipines, Thailand, Taiwan and Vietnam.
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Natural enemies; Tiny parasitoid wasps such as Oobius agrili sp.n. (1 mm long), Spathius agrili, Avetianella batocera, Tetrastichus planipennisi and Avetianella xystrocerae sp.n (1.5 mm long) have been shown effective against (the larvae of) some specific wood-boring beetles (Agrilus planipennis, Agrilus sexsignatus and Xystrocera globosa)[44][45]. Batocera rufus (the mango longhorn beetle), is parasitized (its eggs) by Louricia ovivora, gen. et sp. n.(a moth), and Ooencyrtus batocerae, sp. n.(a wasp) [46] Oobius batocera is an opportunistic parasytic wasp that parasitizes various insect eggs, including beetle eggs. [47]
There are also various mites that parasitize Batocera longhorned beetles.[48] Tetrapolipus diastocerae n. sp., Tetrapolipus afrobatocerae n. sp., Tetrapolipus ramarajui n. sp. and Tetrapolipus seemani n. sp. are described. Tetrapolipus afrobatocerae has been observed in Africa, Tetrapolipus hunteri in Australia.[49] Tetrapolipus sulawesiensis is a mite that parasitizes Batocera herculus.[50]
Dastarcus helophoroides; This predator/parasitoid beetle (originally from China and Japan) is an important natural enemy of longhorned beetles. In the larval stage they attack various long horn beetles, including Batocera horsfieldi and Anoplophora glabripennis. Populations are attracted specifically by the frass of their original host. Eggs are laid twice a year, near the host entrance hole, frass-extrusion holes or larval tunnel walls, guided by semiochemicals. The freshly hatched (at about 21°C) first instars (0.7 mm in length) have legs, and actively move to the host. They bite and paralyze the host, and then suck hemolymph and degenerated tissues from the dead or paralyzed prey. Adults can live over 4 years. [51] Mass production is feasible if hatched larvae are fed cerambycid larvae until they are about 8 mm in lentgh, and subsequently reared on artificial diet (silkworm pupa powder, dry yeasts, yeast extract, sucrose, peptone, squid oiver oil, preservatives and distilled water). The full grown larvae are about 18 mm in length.[52] Adults dont readily disperse; they need to be released on each tree separately. And even if you release them at 1.2 m height, their effectiveness decreases with increasing height in the tree. Yet their effectiveness may be very high; up to 85% host mortality. [53]
Control; The stem borer is active during the night and attracted by light, so that light traps may be effective. Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium commonly used as a biological pesticide, and naturally present in the gut of various catterpillars. This bacterium is toxic to many insects. A specific strain of this bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis ZQ-89 is also toxic to adult long-horned beetles.[54] Prevent the stem borer from laying eggs in the bark by applying a thick layer of coaltar on the stem. Or one may paint (at 0.5%) adult mango trees with monocrotophos or phosalone.[55] One may also specifically apply the insectisides to the potentially affected sites (cracks and cavities), and to twigs and young shoots to deter feeding by adults. One may poke with a hard wire to physically damage, and/or inject insectisides where larvae are suspected. Chloroform, ethyl acetate, Metasystox [demeton-S-methyl] and a mixture of petroleum and kerosene oil (at 5 ml/bore) and ethylene dibromide (at 3 ml/bore) gave 100% mortality of B. rufomaculata larvae.[56] Plaster the holes with wet clay, aluminium phosphide tablets (3 g/hole) and dichlorvos (0.1% spray).[57] Among the chemical treatments, Imidacloprid 17.8% SL, Thiamethoxame 25% WG was found best in management of mango stem borer.[58]
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Mango Fruit Borer
The Mango fruit borer (Citripestis eutraphera; a moth) has been observed in Indonesia, India and Australia. Its lays its eggs (< 1 mm) on fruit or stalk. The larvae feed on mango pulp (and cashews) and cause premature fruit drop, mainly in young fruit. The larvae hatch in 2 days. They are initially white, then red-violet when young, turning to dark blue as they grow. Hatched larvae initially feed on the peel of the fruit. Then they bore into into the fruit and feed for 12 to 15 days before they pupate in the fallen fruit, or in the soil. Often there is more than one larva in a fruit with a total of 15 recorded in one fruit.[59].
Control: Its natural enemies are parasitoid wasps (Aleiodes sp. and Euplectrus sp.) and a parasitoid fly (Blepharella lateralis). [60] To protect the stems, cover them with a cloth or Jute and paste charcoal over it. Fostoxin tablets can also be placed and sealed in the holes made by the borers.
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Mango Gall Midge
There are various mango gall flies:
- Erosomyia mangifereae or Procontarinia frugivora has been observed in the Philippines, India, West Indies and Brazil.
- Asynapta sp. in West Indies.
- Dasyneura mangifereae in Hawaii.
- P. allahabadensis, P. biharana, P. brunneigallicola, P. viridigallicola, P. echinogalliperda, P. keshopurensis, P. mangifoliae, P. tenuispatha, P. amraeomyia and Dasyneura amaramanjarae have been observed in India (and some in Pakistan).
- P. mangicola in China and Japan.
- P. matteiana (1.5 mm long) in India, Kenya, Mauritius, Java and Réunion[61][62].
The tiny (1-2 mm) mango gall flies lay their eggs on the surface of young leaves, buds, shoots and flowers. After hatching, the maggots will eat their way into the plant tissue. This will show as galls (3-4mm) on the leaves. Once mature, they drop to the ground to pupate. The holes that they left behind are susceptible to fungal infections. Infested fruits initially show small (1mm) brownish lesions, which grow as the fruit grows. In young fruits, the exit holes are usually near the point of attachment, on the bottom side. Most infested fruits fall to the ground before ripening. Optimal conditions for reproduction is 26°C and a relative humidity of 70 to 80%. Infestation particularly occurs at bud-burst stage, at fruit set and on tender leaves of new flushes.[63]
Natural enemies; Parasitic insects such as Platygaster sp., Eupelmus sp., Tetrastichus sp., Systasis dasyneurae [64], Pirene sp. and the predator ants Formica rufa (aka red wood ant, native to Europe and North America), Oecophylla longinoda (weaver ant native to West and Central Africa) and Oecophylla smaragdina (native to South-east Asia) and Camponotus sp. (aka carpenter ant, native to forests world wide).[65]
Baits; Coriander oil attracts Erosomyia. D. amaramanjarae is attracted by a mixture of glycine, sodium hydroxide, ammonium carbonate and strong ammonia solution. Bordeaux mixture is a repellent.
Chemicals; Various systemic insecticides are equally effective: Dimecron (phosphamidon), Anthio (formothion) and Metasystox (demeton-S-methyl). Most effective is a mixture of phosphamidon (0.03%) and diazinon (0.03%).[66]
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Mango Hopper
Mango hoppers (Idioscoynio chypeabis, Idioscopus niveosparsus, Idioscopus clypealis, Idioscopus nitidulus and Amritodus atkinsoni aka mango leafhopper), nymphs as well as adults puncture and suck the sap of tender parts of the mango plant. Heavy drainage will cause the leaves to curl and dry. Infested flowers will shrivel and turn brown. Hoppers also secrete honeydew, which may cause sooty mould, inhibiting the leaves from obtaining energy from daylight. Sufficient spacing of trees and pruning of overlapping branches are essential in preventing hopper infestation, as shade (and high humidity) favour hopper multiplication.
Natural enemies: Chrysopa lacciperda, the egg parasite Polynema sp., a preparation of the fungus Beauveria bassiana and particularly the predator Mallada boninensis.
Mallada boninensis; This green lacewing is an effective [67] generalist predator, feeding on mealy bugs (Mani and Krishnamoorthi, 1987), white flies (Selvakumaran et aI., 1996), bollworms and aphids (Kabissa et al., 1996) and on nymphs of Aphis gossypii, Aphis craccivora and Rhopalosiphum maidi [68], blackflies, psylla and leaf miner. Green lacewings are recommended for the integrated pest management programme (Nehare et al., 2004). M. boninensis feeds well on Corcyra cephalonica eggs[69]
Control: Spray Imidacloprid (0.005%; 0.3 ml/L water), acephate 75SP (1.5 g/L water), Etofenprox (0.03%), Phosalone (1.5 ml/L water), Carbaryl (0.15%; 3 g/L water), Monocrotophos (0.04%), Phosphamidon (0.05%) or Methyl Parathion (0.05%).
- Spray 3 times; First spray should be given during the early stage of flower formation. The second spray should be given at a flower size of 6 to 8 cm, still before blooming. The third spray should be given after fruit setting, when the fruits are the size of a pea. Or:
- First spray should be given during the early stage of flower formation. The second spray should be given 2 weeks later. Or:
- Spray 3 times; First spray of imidacloprid (0.005%; 0.3 ml/L water) should be given during the early stage of flower formation. The second spray, thiamethoxam (0.005%; 0.2 g./L water) or acephate 75SP (1.5 g/L water) should be given at after fruit setting. If hopper infestation persists, the third spray, of carbaryl (0.15%; 3 g/L water) should be given prior to fruit maturation.
Imidacloprid residues persist in peel for 60 days and in pulp for 50 days. Mature Dashehari fruits at harvest (after 85 days of spraying) were free from imidacloprid residues.[70]
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Mango Scales
Mango scales suck the sap from the leaves, and as a result, the leaves start drying. This may cause branches to die, blemished fruits and premature dropping. Scales are small insects (1 to 7 mm), generally immobile; as if shells are glued to the plant. Only the newly hatched crawlers (emerging from under a big scale) move to their feeding site. Soft scales produce honeydew, which may cause Sooty mould The main soft mango scales are soft green scales (Coccus viridis), soft brown scales (Coccus hesperidum), and wax scales (Ceroplastes spp.). Armoured mango scales don't excrete honeydew and are usually white (with a brown body) (Aulacaspis tubercularis).
Natural enemies; Natural enemies of scales include parasitic wasps, ladybird beetles and lacewings, which are killed by broad-spectrum pesticides. Because of their honeydew secretion, scales may be protected / farmed by specific ants (eg arboreal ants (Azteca instabilis) farming soft green scales).[71] Some fungal pathogens effect this symbiotic interaction.[72] Parasitoid insects use the honeydew secreted by coccids (and aphids etc) as an infochemical to locate their hosts.[73]
Lecanicillium lecanii; This fungus kills various coccids, including Coccus hesperidum.[74] Also Ceroplastes sp. may be killed by Lecanicilliurn lecanii. Adding body materials of life coccids to a multi-generation culture (medium), significantly keeps the vigor and higher virulence of this fungus.[75]
Chilocorus kuwanae; This ladybird beetle is a primary predator of wax scales (Ceroplastes sp.). This ladybird beetle is attracted by (spraying) methyl jasmonate, mainly due to the terpenoid compound alpha-pinene [76]
Microweisea coccidivora; a tiny (1mm long) predatory ladybird beetle from Florida and South Carolina (USA) that feeds particularly on armoured scales.
Azya orbigera; The larvae of this ladybird beetle predate on Coccus viridis. These larvae are relatively immune to ant attacks (ants that farm coccids), due to their sticky waxy filaments. Also, the presence of ants reduces A. orbigera larvae getting parasitized.[77] A. orbigera has been observed in Colombia, Guyana, Venezuela, Bélize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, México, USA, Trinidad and the West Indies.[78]
Coccophagus scutellaris parasitizes Coccus hesperidum by laying eggs in its gut.[79] When parasited and parasiteless hosts are available, the female of Coccophagus deposits more eggs on the latter.[80]
Control: spraying chlorogenic acid (a phenol naturally present in coffee beans) stimulates locomotory activity of the green scale Coccus viridis, thus minimizing their feeding. [81]
If you have no other option: Collect the affected leaves and burn them. Use Metasystox 25% EC at the rate of 0.3 L in 450 L water or Fotidal 50 EC at the rate of 0.5 L in 450 L water / acre. Or spray mineral oil at low concentrations (not damaging the trees) after fruit picking, but not during flowering. Don't spray during droughts or excessive heat.
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Mango Shoot Borer
Mango Shoot Borer (Penicillaria jocosatrix) or Velvet mango slug; P. jocosatrix (wingspan 2 cm) has been observed in Indonesia, Guam, Hawaii, Thailand and Australia. Its larvae; the caterpillar of this moth causes damage to shoots, stems, inflorescence, flowers and fruits of the mango tree. Pestalotiopsis anacardiacearum sp. nov. (fungal leaf rot) is found on dead mango leaves associated with P. jocosatrix (the Mango Shoot Borer).[82]
Natural enemies: Euplectrus sp. (a parasitoid wasp) and Blepharella lateralis (a parasitoid fly) may effectively decrease Mongo shoot borer infestation [83], and are also effective against the Mango fruit borer
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Mango Tip Borer
Mango Tip borer (Chlumetia transversa). C. transversa has been observed in Taiwan, Sri Lanka and Australia.
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Mealybug
Mealybugs are so-called pseudococcidae (pseudo-scales). Besides the Mango Mealybug (Drosicha mangiferae), also the Papaya Mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) is a mango pest. The papaya mealybug has been observed in Mexico, Florida, Antigua, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Haiti, St Kitts, Martinique, Puerto Rico, St Martin, St Barthélémy, Virgin Islands.[84]
Natural enemies; Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is a predatory ladybird that eats mealybugs, soft scales (Coccidae) and armoured scales (Diaspididae). Originally from Australia, introduced in Florida and commercially available as a mealybug control agent. Unfortunately, the filaments produced by its larvae look very similar to mealybugs.
Of the parasitoids Acerophagus papayae and Anagyrus loecki, A. papayae is the most effective in decimating the papaya mealybug. (Meyerdirk)
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Thrips
Thrips, or thunderflies, thunderbugs, storm flies, thunderblights, storm bugs, corn flies or corn lice may feed on many plants. Frankliniella bispinosa, Frankliniella kelliae (Florida, Caribbeans) and Frankliniella occidentalis (California, Israel) also feed on mango. They feed on young leaves, shoots and flowers, causing discoloration and deformation.
Thrips are tiny (1 mm long on average; varying from 0.5 mm to 1.4 cm). They are not good flyers, but may readily be carried by the wind. Given the right conditions, they may rapidly multiply and form large swarms. To inspect trees for thrips infestation, just shake a branch, and some thrips will fall off the infested branch.
Control: Natural enemies of thrips are Orius sp, Anystis agilis and Hypoaspis aculifer. Biological insecticides such as Beauveria bassiana and Verticillium lecanii may be effective.
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Diseases
Bugs that cause damage to mango trees, are also disease vectors; they transport the viruses, fungi etc. to the mango tree, which may get infected. Mango trees are also more susceptible to fungi, moulds, viruses and bacterial pests when wounded by aphids, coccids, moths, caterpillars, midges and other mango bugs. Succesfully combatting mango bugs, is therefore key to prevention and control of mango diseases.
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Anthracnose
Anthracnose is caused by the fungi Colletotrichum acutatum [85] and Glomerella cingulata [86][87]. It particularly affects young shoots, flowers and fruits. The disease is stimulated by high humidity, frequent rains or mists, and a temperature range of 24 to 32°C. The results of this disease are black spots on panicles, leaf spot, blossom blight, withered tip, twig blight and fruit rot. Particulary young and tender shoots and foliage are affected, causing die back of young branches. Wounded twigs may also be infected and may sometimes die off. Fruits develop black spots and rotting and young fruits may shrivel and prematurely drop. If the entire inflorescence is destroyed, no fruits will set.
Where? It widely occurs in the orchard and in storage, Anthracnose has been reported in Argentina, Florida, Hawaii, India, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, South Africa and Trinidad.
Control: Burn all fallen leaves. Prune affected twigs and burn them. Apply Bordeaux paste on cut ends. To prevent blossom infection, spray twice at 15 days interval during flowering with Carbendazirn (Bavistin 0.1%). To prevent foliar infection, spray copper fungicides (0.3%) twice a week. Apply a teaspoon of dish detergent per spray load to make the copper sulfate stick. Prevent the copper sulfate from dripping on the ground to prevent contamination of the soil and the roots of the tree. Picked mangoes should be submerged for 15 minutes in hot water (52°C) with Carbendazim (0.1%). One may also dip the mangoes in 500 ppm Benomyl and 900 ppm Thiobendazole. C. acutatum is also effectively inhibited by the synthetic strigolactone GR24.[88]
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Bacterial Canker
Bacterial black spot (bacterial canker) is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae. It affects many varieties. Initially, irregular small water soaked lesions will appear on the leaves. These will extend into patches of dead tissue. The leaves will turn yellow and die. The lesions will also appear on the the stalk of the leaves, twigs and fruits. The fruits will then turn brown and black, and burst open. The released fluid is filled with bacteria that will contaminate the rest of the tree or other fruits in storage.
Control: Immediately spray Agrimycin-100 (0.01%) or Streptocycline (0.01%), 3 times at 10 days interval. Subsequently spray Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) or Carbendazim (Bavistin 0.1%) once a month.
Die Back
Die back (Botryodiplodia (Lasiodiplodia) theobromae aka Physalospora disrupta/quercuum/rhodina/glandicola) may occur any time of the year. It is characterized by advancing discoloration and darkening of the bark. It extends along the veins of the leaves, causing browning and upwards rolling of the margins. Eventually the leaves shrivel and fall. Twigs and branches dry and defoliate, and may drain a yellow-brown gummy fluid. It may look as if the tree has been exposed to a bush fire.
Control: Prune diseased twigs 10 cm below the affected area. Paste the cut ends with Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) and also spray Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) on affected trees.
Diplodia Stem-end Rot
This fungus (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) may enter the mango where the skin or stem has been injured mechanically. It will form a black circle around the pedicel.
Control: Prevent mechanical injuries. After picking, submerge mangoes for 15 minutes in hot water (53C) with Carbendazirn (0.1%).
Mango Black Blight
Black blight is caused by a fungus (Capnodium mangiferum).
Mango Blight
Mango blight is caused by Erwinia bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae). Many spots appear on the leaves which cause a reduction in growth and yield.
Control: Use Dithane M 45 at the rate of 1.7g/L (450 L water per acre).
Mango Malformation
Mango malformation (Fusarium mangiferae) has been reported in Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Central America, Cuba, Egypt, India, Israel, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, South Africa, Sudan, Switzerland, UAE and the USA. It is a disease caused by fusarium species [89][90] (F. subglutinans from Egypt, Florida, Israel, Malaysia and South Africa, F. sterilihyphosum from Brazil and South Africa, and Fusarium sp. nov. and F. proliferatum from Malaysia)[91]Free Full Text. The disease is stimulated by relatively cool conditions; 10 to 27°C, and merely survive hotter conditions. In this disease the leaves and inflorescence of the mango tree are badly deformed and gradually dry up. There is no fruit setting and hence no production.
Control: Various fungicides, including Captan, Benomyl and Thiram have been reported to be effective to some extend.
Phoma Blight
Phoma blight (Phoma glomerata) is a fungus that affects the fibre in the top layer of old leaves. It produces small, irregular, angular lesions. As the lesions grown, the colour changes from yellow-brown to cinnamon. Many small spots may form overwhelming patches and result defoliation of affected leaves. Phoma glomerate very effectively produces an enzyme that converts the remainders (glucose) of fibre (from the leaves) into it the main structural component (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine)[92] in its cell walls, thus enabling its own growth.
Control: Immediately spray Benomyl (0.2%), and 20 days later spray 0.3% Miltox (Copper Oxychloride plus Zineb). Quadris (azoxystrobin) combined with thymol at a non-fungitoxic concentration produces much higher growth inhibition of Phoma glomerata than the fungicide alone.[93]
Powdery Mildew
Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae) affects virtually all mango varieties. Characteristically, a white superficial powdery fungal grows on the inflorescence and tender leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits will pre-maturely drop, or fruit setting does not occur at all. The disease is initiated and developed by warm (>17°C) dry weather, but during the flowering stimulated by prolonged rains or mists and by cool nights. The disease has been reported in Brazil, India, Jamaica, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, South Africa and the U.S.A.
Control: Alternately spray wettable sulphur (0.2% ; 2 g Sulfex/L), Tridemorph (O.1% ; 1 ml Calixin/L) and Bavistin (0.1%) at 15 days interval. Start spraying when the panicle (flower cluster) starts to emerge. Or spray with Carbendazim (0.1%) or Tridemefon (0.05%) or wettable sulphur (0.3%) alone (3 days in a row).
Control-2: Similar to A. quisqualis AQ10 Biofungicide in commercial use for biocontrol of powdery mildew, Phoma glomerata (see Phoma Blight above) may act as mycoparasite of powdery mildew. Phoma glomerata can colonize and suppress development of powdery mildew.[94] Full free text
Red Rust
Red rust (Cephaleuros virescens aka C. parasiticus) initially causes round and slightly elevated green-grey spots mainly on leaves. They turn into rusty red spots and may form bigger patches. This reduces the photosynthetic capacity of the leaves. In severely infected trees, twigs will remain stunted, the bark and twigs will get thick and the leaves will dry up and drop off.
Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) 3 times.
Sooty Mould
Sooty mould (Meliola mangiferae) may be the result of too many insects in your orchard. Scale insects, mealy bug and hoppers secrete honey dew. The honey dew sticks to the leaves, feeding fungal growth. This results in a black sooty mould over the entire surface of leaves and twigs, affecting the photosynthetic capacity of the leaves. Uncontrolled, the tree may completely turn black.
Control: Prune and burn the affected branches. Spray Wettasulf (0.2%) with+ Metacid (0.1 %) and gum acacia (0.3%). Ants feed on the honeydew excreted by soft scales, preventing accumulation of sooty moulds, but they also protect the scales from natural enemies.
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