Mango

Together with oranges and clementines, mangoes are the most all-round fruits, regarding nutrients. Mangoes are cultivated in (sub)tropical regions all over the world.

Low-fibre, sweet mango species

If you use a juice extractor like the Versapers (masticating slow juicer), the stringy fibres from species like Tommy Atkins or Haden will clog your juicer (more so than pineapples). The chamber will fill up with long fibres that simply never get discarded, so that you need to empty and clean it after every few mangoes. With mangoes like Kent (#8 on the list), you may endlessly (>100 mangoes) continue juicing without having to empty or clean the chamber in between, because the short fibres are immediately discarded as pulp (as with apples, pears, clementines).

Alphonso

• #1
• Small, roundish / oblong (av. 193 g.)
• Smooth, pale greenish-yellow, purple or deep orange peel (deepening with ripening)
• Smooth, firm flesh. Intense reddish-orange colour
• Sweet (17% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 39) and flavoured
• Virtually without fibre (1%)
• Originally from Western India
• Main production in Maharashtra and Gujarat
• Highest quality in Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri (Natwarlal plantation), Raigad and Thane districts
• Harvested from early April to early July (India) and July (some districts in Sindh, Pakistan)
• Fairly disease resistant
• Tolerates high humidity
• Good keeping quality (up to 4 weeks at 11° C)

Sindhri

• #2
• Medium to large (av. 300 g., 400 g in Pakistan)
• Elongated with pointy curve
• Sweet (17% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 36) and flavoured
• From green to deep matt lemon yellow thin peel (somewhat wrinkly) when ripe
• Deep yellow-orange flesh; soft and melting
• Originally from Mir Pur Khaas in Sindh
• Harvested from early June to July (Pakistan)

Chau(n)sa

• #3 (aka Sammar Bahisht Chausa)
• Large (av. 389 g.)
• Sweet (18% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 58)
• Soft, succulent flesh
• Minimum of fibre, large stone
• Thin, pale, matt yellow peel (wrinkly and slightly deeper when ripe)
• Originally from Pakistan
• Harvested mainly in the Rahim Yar Khan and Multan (Sahiwal) districts of Punjab in Pakistan
• Harvested from early July to early September (Pakistan)

Maya

• #4
• Medium, round (av. 211 g.)
• Sweet (17% sugar; sugar/acid ratio: 42) and flavoured
• Red blush peel (with yellow tinge when ripe)
• Deep yellow flesh (soft when ripe)
• Virtually without fibre, smooth
• Harvested from mid-June to early July (Gambia)

Gopalbogh

• #5 (aka Gopal Bhogue)
• Small sized (average 190 g.)
• Yellow-green peel, with small seeds
• Virtually without fibre
• Very sweet (21% sugar)
• Good quality mainly grown in Rajshahi region, especially in Chapainawabganj district (Bangladesh).
• Harvest from mid May to mid June (Bangladesh)

Sweet Elena

• #6
• Large sized, ovoid (av. 350 g.)
• Thin, orange peel
• Yellow to orange flesh
• Little fibre
• Sweet (19% sugar)
• Originally (as a carabao variety) from Sta. Cruz, Zambales (Philippines)
• Harvest from March to April (Locloc, Palauig in northern Zambales, Philippines)

Ataulfo

• #7 (aka Manila or honey mango, related to Alphonso)
• Small, oblong shape (170 to 280 g.)
• With ripening, peel turns from pale green to gold-yellow (yellow to orange and wrinkles when fully ripe)
• Deep yellow flesh (gold when ripe), without fibre and thin pit
• Smooth, sweet (15% sugar), and buttery / creamy flesh
• Spicy flavour
• Best temperature is 28°C
• Originally from Mexico
• Harvest from mid-October to late December (Ecuador); February to August (Ghana)
• May be stored in the fridge for 2 weeks

Kent

• #8
• Large, rounded oval (500 to 800 g.)
• Smooth, waxy thick peel (green with some yellow and red; yellow increases with ripening)
• Soft, melting, juicy flesh (from deep yellow to deep orange when fully ripe)
• Limited fibre (dry weight: 0.4 - 2%), small seed
• Sweet (13% sugar; 14ºBrix [4])
• Originally from Mexico / Florida
• Harvest from January to March and May to August (Ghana)
• Large tree (up to 20 m.)
• No storage keeping below 13°C
• Fairly disease resistant

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Mango Cultivation

Conditions

The temperature range for growing mangoes is 15 to 40°C. Mango does best within a temperature range of 24 to 27°C. The Indian race is intolerant of humidity (susceptible to anthracnose), the Philippine race tolerates excess moisture. The life span of each tree is approximately 100 years. Economic bearing life is 30 to 50 years. Grafted saplings yield a more superior quality of fruit. Fruits are borne by mango trees from 4 to 5 years after planting. Full bearing starts at 6 to 7 years. Grafted mango plants start bearing blossoms one to two years after planting, provided that there is no high humidity or intense rain during the flowering period (dryness induces flowering).

Rootstock Propagation

One can raise mango from seed (to raise rootstocks) or vegetative propagation. Rootstocks are not true to type. Extract stones from ripe mangoes and seed in beds, in lines. The seedlings are propagated asexually by side or veneer, in beds or shifted to earthen or polythene bags. Matured seedlings are grafted by inarching. Young plants need 10 to 30 kg manure per plant and need to be irrigated once a week.

Production technology

Adult mango trees need about 500-750 mm of water per year. In the wet season irrigated once per 8 to 10 days. In the dry season once per 15 to 20 days. Mature trees need 80 to 100 kg manure per tree. If during the blooming season the soil contains much nutrients (fertilizer) and water, the tree will grow, but not flower and bear fruits. Apply 3-4 kg SSP, 2-3 kg Potassium Sulphate and 2-3 kg Urea before flowering. After fruit setting, apply 2-3 kg Urea in two equal doses. After fruit harvest, prune off diseased, dried, broken branches and those touching the ground. Every 3 to 4 years about 15 to 20% of old wood should be removed. Picking should be done when the fruit is fully developed and mature. Natural drop of the fruit is the main indication that the fruit is ready for picking. Expected yields vary from 40 to 100 kg per tree.

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Diseases, Pests

Anthracnose [1]

Anthracnose

Anthracnose © Nelson

Anthracnose is caused by the fungi Colletotrichum acutatum [5] and Glomerella cingulata [6][7]. It particularly affecting young shoots, flowers and fruits. The disease is stimulated by high humidity, frequent rains or mists, and a temperature range of 24 to 32°C. The results of this disease are black spots on panicles, leaf spot, blossom blight, withered tip, twig blight and fruit rot. Particulary young and tender shoots and foliage are affected, causing die back of young branches. Wounded twigs may also be infected and may sometimes die off. Fruits develop black spots and rotting and young fruits may shrivel and prematurely drop. If the entire inflorescence is destroyed, no fruits will set.

Where? It widely occurs in the orchard and in storage, Anthracnose has been reported in Argentina, Florida, Hawaii, India, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, South Africa and Trinidad.

Control: Burn all fallen leaves. Prune affected twigs and burn them. Apply Bordeaux paste on cut ends. To prevent blossom infection, spray twice at 15 days interval during flowering with Carbendazirn (Bavistin 0.1%). To prevent foliar infection, spray copper fungicides (0.3%. Picked mangoes should be submerged for 15 minutes in hot water (52°C) with Carbendazim (0.1%). One may also dip the mangoes in 500 ppm Benomyl and 900 ppm Thiobendazole. C. acutatum is also effectively inhibited by the synthetic strigolactone GR24.[8]

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Aphids

Aphids © Varela

Predatory ladybird [2]

File:Hooverfly Syrphus ribesii.jpg

Hooverfly [3]

File:Xysticus sp vs ant.jpg

Spider vs ant © S.Karthikeyan

Aphids (plant lice; Toxoptera odinae) are small (1-4 mm), living in clusters. They pierce plant tissue and suck the sap of the leaves, which may cause the leaves to bend, twist or roll up. Aphids also transmit plant viruses. Some species produce winged offspring, "alates", that may readily disperse. Dry (and warm) weather stimulates increases in aphid numbers. Some species of ants (eg Dolichoderus cuspidatus and Formica aerate) protect and 'farm' aphids, feeding on the honeydew released by the aphids' alimentary (gut) canals. Insects secreting honeydew may cause Sooty mould

Control: Plant flowering plants at the boarders to attract beneficial insects. Plant 'trap crops' (dill, nasturtiums, timothy grass) to monitor aphid numbers. Check the trap crops every 3 days. Infested trap crops need to be burned. Aphid's natural enemies include predatory ladybirds {eg Propylea quatuordecimpunctata}, hooverfly larvae, parasitic wasps, aphid midge larvae, crab spiders (Thomisidae), lacewings and entomopathogenic fungi like Lecanicillium lecanii and the Entomophthorales. Exposing aphid populations to natural predators may be successful particularly when its hot, because once bitten they release an alarm pheromone and the others all jump off the plant. Jumping aphids may experience a heat shock (> 35°C) since the ground may be much warmer than the shady tree. This heat shock usually sterilizes the aphids (killing the bacteria on aphids that provide nutrients essential for aphid reproduction). [9]

Crab spiders (Thomisidae); Crab spiders are ambush hunters (they don't build webs) that not just eat aphids, but may also hunt ants that farm aphids. Some of these crab spiders, Xysticus sp, may however not just eat ants, but also predatory beetles (that eat aphids).

Chemicals; If you have no other option and immediate action is required: Use Folido 50% EC at the rate of 0.45 L per 450 L water / acre. (also kills natural aphid enemies)

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Bacterial Canker

Bacterial black spot (bacterial canker) is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. mangiferaeindicae. It affects many varieties. Initially, irregular small water soaked lesions will appear on the leaves. These will extend into patches of dead tissue. The leaves will turn yellow and die. The lesions will also appear on the the stalk of the leaves, twigs and fruits. The fruits will then turn brown and black, and burst open. The released fluid is filled with bacteria that will contaminate the rest of the tree or other fruits in storage.

Control: Immediately spray Agrimycin-100 (0.01%) or Streptocycline (0.01%), 3 times at 10 days interval. Subsequently spray Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) or Carbendazim (Bavistin 0.1%) once a month.

Die Back

Die back (Botryodiplodia (Lasiodiplodia) theobromae aka Physalospora disrupta/quercuum/rhodina/glandicola) may occur any time of the year. It is characterized by advancing discoloration and darkening of the bark. It extends along the veins of the leaves, causing browning and upwards rolling of the margins. Eventually the leaves shrivel and fall. Twigs and branches dry and defoliate, and may drain a yellow-brown gummy fluid. It may look as if the tree has been exposed to a bush fire.

Control: Prune diseased twigs 10 cm below the affected area. Paste the cut ends with Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) and also spray Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) on affected trees.

Diplodia Stem-end Rot

This fungus (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) may enter the mango where the skin or stem has been injured mechanically. It will form a black circle around the pedicel.

Control: Prevent mechanical injuries. After picking, submerge mangoes for 15 minutes in hot water (53C) with Carbendazirn (0.1%).

Fruit flies

C. capitata © José Inzulza

C. fasciventris © Copeland

C. cosyra © Copeland

C. rosa © wzciq

B. invadens © IAEA

O. longinoda © A.Wild

Ants vs fly © J. Vayssières

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The fruit flies (aka peacock flies) that may form a mango cultivation pest is not the Drosophila, but the colourful Tephritidae family (> 5000 species). These attack mango fruits throughout the season and lay their eggs right under the (affected) skin. They have three generations and multiply very rapidly.

The main fruit fly pests of mango in Africa are Ceratitis capitata (Medfly), C. fasciventris, C. rosa and C. cosyra (the most destructive). C. cosyra is however rapidly displaced by Bactrocera invadens (endemic to Sri Lanka)[10][11], being predominantly a low-land pest.[12] B. invadens populations quickly increase with the onset of the raining season.[13] Fruit fly populations peak in the late dry season.[14]

Control: Collect all the fallen and affected fruits and bury them deep (>50 cm) into the soil. Natural enemies of tephritids include Diapriidae (tiny wasps; <8mm), Braconidae (also parasitoid wasps) and Oecophylla longinoda (Latreille; a weaver ant). C. cosyra, but particularly C. fasciventris and Medfly may be effectively controlled by using the host-marking pheromone.[15] B. invadens [16], the Mediterranean fruit fly (C. capitata) and the Mexican fruit fly (Anastrepha ludens) may be effectively controlled by the 'sterile insect technique' (releasing overwhelming numbers of sterile insects). Medfly eggs and instars (right under the peel) may be killed by immersing Ataulfo mangoes for 95 min in warm water at 47°C, also positively modifying pH (producing more palatable fruits), but can also produce a loss of firmness and weight (5%).[17] B. invadens is no more heat tolerant than Medfly.[18] Pheromone traps can be used for trapping male flies. A three-component attractant (ammonium acetate, putrescine, and trimethylamine lures) may be used to trap female population of Medfly. (No wind: 28 m. range).[19]

Oecophylla longinoda. O. longinoda is a predator weaver ant that may eat whatever insect or bug they may catch, including caterpillars, beatles, honey bees, driver ants (Dorylus nigricans Ill.) and larvae. O. longinoda is a natural enemy of fruit flies as it eats their larvae. This weaver ant is fiercely territorial and will keep other species of ants (like aphids-farming black ants) at bay. The ants continuously patrol the tree that they live in and may also catch egg-laying female fruit flies in the act, and eat them. B. invadens and C. spp numbers on Kent mangoes may be greatly reduced by Oecophylla longinoda.[20] Weaver ants, however, also feed on honeydew. They may farm a wide range of honeydew-producing Homoptera (bugs with sucking mouthparts, including scales, aphids and mealybugs), but are mostly associated with Coccids (Saissetia; no virus vector). Only when other Coccids are scarce or unavailable, O. longinoda may farm aphids and mealybugs (unarmoured scale insects that are virus vectors). Mainly in small trees and shrubs, the mechanical damage caused by Coccids is related to the size of the attendant ant colony. Dense populations of O. longinoda are supported by interplanting with clove.[21] For the protection of their harvested honeydew, these weaver ants weave a translucent silken tent around living leaves. They use the silk produced by their larvae. It is claimed that pheromones produced by the weaver ants repel egglaying fruit flies. A study in Senegal, however, found that pheromones produced by O. longinoda did hardly repel egglaying females of B. invadens.[22] On the other hand, trees colonized by O. longinoda (in Ghana) had only 6 to 10% fly infestation, compared to 3% fly infestation in trees treated with Cypermethrin plus Dimethoate. (1614 mg per tree)[23]

Chemicals; If you have no other option, GF-120 (Dow chemical) may greatly (81-89% after 7-10 weeks) reduce the number of B. invadens pupae per kg mango.[24] Or use Dioptries 80% at the rate of 1 L in 450 L water or Malathion 57% at the rate of 0.5 L to 450 L water / acre. Malathion-bait sprays and Phloxine B (a xanthene dye; D&C Red #28) are equally effective.[25]

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Mango Black Blight

Black blight is caused by a fungus (Capnodium mangiferum).

Mango Blight

Mango blight is caused by Erwinia bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae). Many spots appear on the leaves which cause a reduction in growth and yield.

Control: Use Dithane M 45 at the rate of 750 g. in 450 L water / acre.

Mango Borer

The Mango fruit borer (Citripestis eutraphera; a moth) is known in Indonesia and Australia. The larvae feed on pulp and cause premature fruit drop, mainly in young fruit. The larvae are red-violet when young, turning to dark blue as they grow. In Asia, Hawaii, Fiji and Guam the Mango shoot/tip borer/caterpillar or Velvet mango slug (Penicillaria jocosatrix or Lepidoptera noctuidae; also a moth) causes damage to shoots, stems, inflorescence, flowers and fruits of the mango tree.

Control: Its natural enemies are parasitoid wasps (Aleiodes sp. and Euplectrus sp.) and Blepharella lateralis Macquart. [26] To protect the stems, cover them with a cloth or Jute and paste charcoal over it. Fostoxin tablets can also be placed and sealed in the holes made by the borers. Pestalotiopsis anacardiacearum sp. nov. is found on dead mango leaves associated with P. jocosatrix.[27]

Mango Malformation

Mango malformation (Fusarium mangiferae) has been reported in Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Central America, Cuba, Egypt, India, Israel, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan, South Africa, Sudan, Switzerland, UAE and the USA. It is a disease caused by fusarium species [28][29] (F. subglutinans from Egypt, Florida, Israel, Malaysia and South Africa, F. sterilihyphosum from Brazil and South Africa, and Fusarium sp. nov. and F. proliferatum from Malaysia)[30]Free Full Text. The disease is stimulated by relatively cool conditions; 10 to 27°C, and merely survive hotter conditions. In this disease the leaves and inflorescence of the mango tree are badly deformed and gradually dry up. There is no fruit setting and hence no production.

Control: Various fungicides, including Captan, Benomyl and Thiram have been reported to be effective to some extend.

Mango Scales

Mango scales suck the sap from the leaves as a results of which the tree starts drying. This may cause branches to die, blemished fruits and premature dropping. Scales are small insects (1 to 7 mm), generally immobile; as if shells are glued to the plant. Only the newly hatched crawlers (emerging from under a big scale) move to their feeding site. Soft scales produce honeydew, which may cause Sooty mould The main soft mango scales are soft green scales (Coccus viridis), soft brown scales (Coccus hesperidum), and wax scales (Ceroplastes spp.). Armoured mango scales don't excrete honeydew and are usually white (with a brown body) (Aulacaspis tubercularis).

Control: Collect the affected leaves and burn them. Use Metasystox 25% EC at the rate of 0.3 L in 450 L water or Fotidal 50 EC at the rate of 0.5 L in 450 L water / acre. Or spray mineral oil at low concentrations (not damaging the trees) after fruit picking, but not during flowering. Don't spray during droughts or excessive heat. Natural enemies of scales include parasitic wasps, ladybird beetles and lacewings, which are killed by broad-spectrum pesticides.

Phoma Blight

Phoma blight (Phoma glomerata) is a fungus that affects the fibre in the top layer of old leaves. It produces small, irregular, angular lesions. As the lesions grown, the colour changes from yellow-brown to cinnamon. Many small spots may form overwhelming patches and result defoliation of affected leaves. Phoma glomerate very effectively produces an enzyme that converts the remainders (glucose) of fibre (from the leaves) into it the main structural component (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine)[31] in its cell walls, thus enabling its own growth.

Control: Immediately spray Benomyl (0.2%), and 20 days later spray 0.3% Miltox (Copper Oxychloride plus Zineb). Quadris (azoxystrobin) combined with thymol at a non-fungitoxic concentration produces much higher growth inhibition of Phoma glomerata than the fungicide alone.[32]

Powdery Mildew

Powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae) affects virtually all mango varieties. Characteristically, a white superficial powdery fungal grows on the inflorescence and tender leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits will pre-maturely drop, or fruit setting does not occur at all. The disease is initiated and developed by warm (>17°C) dry weather, but during the flowering stimulated by prolonged rains or mists and by cool nights. The disease has been reported in Brazil, India, Jamaica, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, South Africa and the U.S.A.

Control: Alternately spray wettable sulphur (0.2% ; 2 g Sulfex/L), Tridemorph (O.1% ; 1 ml Calixin/L) and Bavistin (0.1%) at 15 days interval. Start spraying when the panicle (flower cluster) starts to emerge. Or spray with Carbendazim (0.1%) or Tridemefon (0.05%) or wettable sulphur (0.3%) alone (3 days in a row).

Control-2: Similar to A. quisqualis AQ10 Biofungicide in commercial use for biocontrol of powdery mildew, Phoma glomerata (see Phoma Blight above) may act as mycoparasite of powdery mildew. Phoma glomerata can colonize and suppress development of powdery mildew.[33] Full free text

Red Rust

Red rust (Cephaleuros virescens aka C. parasiticus) initially causes round and slightly elevated green-grey spots mainly on leaves. They turn into rusty red spots and may form bigger patches. This reduces the photosynthetic capacity of the leaves. In severely infected trees, twigs will remain stunted, the bark and twigs will get thick and the leaves will dry up and drop off.

Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride (0.3%) 3 times.

Sooty Mould

Sooty mould (Meliola mangiferae) may be the result of too many insects in your orchard. Scale insects, mealy bug and hoppers secrete honey dew. The honey dew sticks to the leaves, feeding fungal growth. This results in a black sooty mould over the entire surface of leaves and twigs, affecting the photosynthetic capacity of the leaves. Uncontrolled, the tree may completely turn black.

Control: Prune and burn the affected branches. Spray Wettasulf (0.2%) with+ Metacid (0.1 %) and gum acacia (0.3%). Ants feed on the honeydew excreted by soft scales, preventing accumulation of sooty moulds, but they also protect the scales from natural enemies.